The Hellenistic period (4th - 1st century BC) is that era in the Eastern Mediterranean region from the death of Alexander the Great to the defeat of Cleopatra in 31 BC. In western Europe it is often considered a period of transition, even of decline or decadence, between the brilliance of the Greek Classical Era and the power of the Roman Empire. However, the splendor of its cities, like Alexandria, Antioch, Pergamon, the importance of its foreign trade and cultural exchanges, plus the dominance of the Greek language and its diffusion continued to profoundly affect the ancient Near East, even under Roman dominion.

The Hellenistic era was defined by 19th century historians (the term "hellenistic" was defined by the German Historian Johann Gustav Droysen in Geschichte des Hellenismus in 1836 and 1843) to describe the linguistic and cultural influence of the Greeks (hellênízein) after Alexander's conquests. In this sense, the Hellenization of large regions and of the meeting of ancient Eastern and Western civilizations continued into the "Greco-Roman" period. Recent archaeological and historical work has led to fuller appreciation of the period, especially under two aspects: the stature of the kingdoms led by dynasties of Greek origin (Ptolemaic, Seleucid, Antigonid, Attalid, etc.) and the role of hundreds of cities whose importance continued under Roman rule.

Alexander's achievement

Alexander's conquest of the Persian Empire has long been seen to have opened the way for the spread of Greek culture. The foundation of cities was part Alexander's desire to spread Greek culture across the Empire. Arrian explicitly says that a city founded in Bactria was "meant to civilise the natives". But these cities also provided garrisons for unstable areas and allowed any soldiers unfit for service to settle.

Alexander attempted to create a unified ruling class of Persians and Greeks, bound by marriage ties. He used both Greeks and Persians in positions of power, although he depended more on Greeks in unstable locations, and also replaced many Persian satraps in a purge after his return from India. He also tried to mix the two cultures, adopting elements of the Persian court (such as a version of the royal robes and some of the court ceremony and attendants) and also attempting to insist on the practice of proskynesis (or worshipful submission) for his Greek subjects. This attempt to equalise the two races in their behavior towards Alexander as the Great King, was bitterly resented by the Macedonians, as in Greek custom proskynesis was reserved solely for the gods. Alexander also integrated the army, placing Persian soldiers (some trained in the Macedonian way of fighting and some in their original styles) in the Macedonian ranks.

After Alexander's death in 323, the Empire was split into satrapies under his generals. Although most of Alexander's cultural changes were rejected by the successor kings (Diadochoi), other less definite policies were continued. The founding of cities was a major part of the Diadochoi struggle for control of any particular region, and the independence of the Greek cities was a political right often fought for (although equally often used for political purposes rather than ideologically). The Diadochoi used the existing systems of government within their individual satrapies, but often placed Greeks in the top levels of power. The spread of the Greek language also increased, often being used in tandem with the native language for administrative purposes.

It is doubtful that Alexander did have a desire to spread Greek culture throughout the known world, but as so much is unknown about Alexander's motives, we cannot really be sure what his aims were. Alexander's invasion opened up the Persian Empire and allowed an influx of settlers from the Greek world into a new area, but the influence of this was often exaggerated in light of the later influence of various cities, particularly Alexandria.

Diadochoi and Hellenistic civilization

There were four main Kingdoms claimed by the Diadochoi, who maintained Macedonian and Greek rule over the native populations, while allowing the native culture and religion to continue, mixed in with elements of Greek culture. This admixture is how Hellenization had it greatest influence.

The spread of Greek culture throughout the Near East owed much to the development of cities. Settlements such as Ai-Khanoum, situated on trade routes, allowed cultures to mix and spread. The identification of local gods with similar Greek deities facilitated the building of Greek-style temples, and the Greek culture in the cities also meant that buildings such as gymnasium became common. Many cities maintained their autonomy while under the nominal rule of the local king or satrap, and often had Greek-style institutions, such as statues, architecture, dedications and other inscriptions , all intermixed with elements of the local cultures, to create a new culture.

The spread of the Greek language allowed Greek literature to spread throughout the former Persian Empire. The development of the Alexander Romance (mainly in Egypt) owes much to Greek theatre as well as other styles of narrative. The Library at Alexandria, set up by Ptolemy I Soter, became a center for learning that was copied by various other monarchs. An example showing the diverse spread of Greek theatre is Plutarch's story of the death of Crassus, in which his head is taken to the Parthian court and used as a prop in a showing of The Bacchae. Impressive theatres have also been found: for example, in Ai-Khanoum on the edge of Bactria, the theatre has 35 rows - larger than the theatre in Babylon.

The spread of Greek influence and language is also shown through the distribution of coinage. Portraits became more realistic, and the obverse of the coin was often used to display a propaganda image, commemorating an event or displaying the image of a favored god. The use of Greek-style portraits and Greek language continued into the Parthian period, even as Greek as a language was in decline. (See Wikipedia on Ancient Greek coinage.)

Roman intervention; political decline of the Hellenistic world

At the end of the 3rd century BC, greater Greece (south Italy and Sicily) was conquered by Rome after a century of war, either with Pyrrhus of Epirus or within the Punic Wars. it is only at the beginning of the 2nd century BC that Rome seriously intervened in the Orient. First they defeated theAntigonid dynasty and Antiochus III the Great, the last great political figure of the hellenistic sovereigns before Mithridates VI of Pontus and Cleopatra VII. Then in a slow a complex process over almost two centuries, with help from various cities and the kingdom of Pergamum, Rome gained complete domination of the eastern Mediterranean. The last act of this conquest was the battle of Actium, between Octavian (Augustus) and Mark Antony, ally of the last queen of Egypt, Cleopatra VII, and her defeat then her suicide in 30 BC.

But Roman penetration encountered resistance and three wars were needed to defeat Mithridates VI in the 1st century BC. In 63 BC Pompey eliminated the seleucid kingdom and partially reorganised the East under Roman laws, until this was completed after the victory of Augustus in 31 BC.